Atrial, Ventricular, and Atrioventricular Septal Defects
● ATRIAL SEPTAL DEFECT Definition, Spectrum of Disease, and Incidence The interatrial septum plays a critical role in fetal cardiac function as it provides a shunt between the right and…
Tetralogy of Fallot, Pulmonary Atresia with Ventricular Septal Defect, and Absent Pulmonary Valve Syndrome
● TETRALOGY OF FALLOT Definition, Spectrum of Disease, and Incidence Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) is characterized by a subaortic (malaligned) ventricular septal defect (VSD), an aortic root that overrides the…
Pulmonary Stenosis, Pulmonary Atresia with Intact Ventricular Septum, and Ductus Arteriosus Constriction
● PULMONARY STENOSIS Definition, Spectrum of Disease, and Incidence Pulmonary stenosis is a cardiac anomaly characterized by an obstruction to pulmonary arterial blood flow. Pulmonary stenosis can be due to…
Three- and Four-Dimensional Ultrasound of the Fetal Heart
● INTRODUCTION Three- (3D) and four-dimensional (4D) ultrasound have become an important tool in obstetric imaging in the last decade. Unlike conventional two-dimensional (2D) ultrasound, 3D ultrasound provides a volume…
Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome and Critical Aortic Stenosis
● HYPOPLASTIC LEFT HEART SYNDROME Definition, Spectrum of Disease, and Incidence Hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS) is a group of complex cardiac malformations involving significant underdevelopment of the left ventricle…
Complete and Congenitally Corrected Transposition of the Great Arteries
● COMPLETE TRANSPOSITION OF THE GREAT ARTERIES Definition, Spectrum of Disease, and Incidence Complete transposition of the great arteries (TGA) is a common cardiac malformation with atrioventricular concordance and ventriculoarterial discordance….
Coarctation of the Aorta and Interrupted Aortic Arch
● COARCTATION OF THE AORTA Definition, Spectrum of Disease, and Incidence Coarctation of the aorta is a common anomaly, found in about 5% to 8% of newborns and infants with…
Fetal Heterotaxy and Situs Inversus
● FETAL HETEROTAXY WITH LEFT AND RIGHT ATRIAL ISOMERISM Definition, Terminology, and Incidence Situs Solitus and the Right-Sided and Left-Sided Organs The embryologic development of abdominal and thoracic structures follows…
Ebstein Anomaly, Tricuspid Valve Dysplasia, and Tricuspid Regurgitation
● EBSTEIN ANOMALY Definition, Spectrum of Disease, and Incidence As explained in Chapters 5 and 7, the tricuspid valve inserts in the normal heart slightly more apically on the interventricular…
Cardiac Chambers: The Four-Chamber and Short-Axis Views
● INTRODUCTION Understanding the spatial relationship and anatomy of the cardiac chambers is an essential prerequisite step to the ultrasound evaluation of the fetal heart. The cardiac chambers differ in…
