55 PLEURAL EFFUSION General Discussion Potential mechanisms of pleural fluid accumulation include increased interstitial fluid in the lungs secondary to increased pulmonary capillary pressure or permeability, decreased intrapleural pressure, decreased…

52 OSTEOPOROSIS General Discussion Primary osteoporosis results from deterioration of bone mass that is related to aging and decreased gonadal function but is not associated with any chronic illness. Because…

53 PERIPHERAL EDEMA General Discussion Edema results from an imbalance of forces controlling fluid exchange. These forces include increased capillary hydraulic pressure, decreased plasma oncotic pressure, increased capillary permeability, and…

51 NEPHROLITHIASIS General Discussion The lifetime risk of passing a kidney stone is about 8–10% among North American males, with a peak incidence at age 30 years. Women have a…

50 MYALGIAS General Discussion Muscle pain may be the result of muscle disease, but joint and bone disease also may produce complaints of muscle pain. Pain from disease of overlying…

49 MUSCLE WEAKNESS General Discussion The first step in the evaluation of muscle weakness is differentiating true muscle weakness from fatigue and asthenia. Fatigue is the inability to continue performing…

47 LEUKOCYTOSIS General Discussion Leukocytosis is defined as a white blood cell (WBC) count greater than 11 000 per mm3. Circulating leukocytes consist of neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils, and lymphocytes….

48 LEUKOPENIA General Discussion The normal peripheral white blood cell count ranges from 5.0 to 10.0 × 109/L. Leukopenia is defined as a total WBC count below 4.5 × 109/L….

46 INSOMNIA General Discussion Insomnia is a symptom complex consisting of inadequate or poor-quality sleep characterized by one or more of the following problems: difficulty falling asleep, difficulty staying asleep,…