B. Terminology. Parents may be confined in jails or prisons. Jails are local or county facilities that typically house inmates serving shorter sentences or awaiting transfer to prison. Prisons are state or federal institutions where inmates serve longer sentences; prisons are often located distant to communities where offenders’ families live.

C. Characteristics of incarcerated parents. The majority of parents are fathers (92%), though maternal incarceration is increasing more rapidly. African American fathers compose the largest percentage of those incarcerated, whereas inmate mothers are more likely to be white. Many inmates have their own childhood histories involving risk factors such as parental substance use, foster care involvement, abuse, and family members who were also involved with the criminal justice system. Drug offenses, often accompanied by chronic substance abuse, are a common reason for incarceration. Almost half of inmates lived with their children prior to arrest; this percentage is higher for parents in local or county jails or when the mother is incarcerated. Most inmate parents maintain some contact with their children during incarceration.

D. Affected children. The majority of affected children are 14 years or younger. African American children are six and a half times more likely and Hispanic children two and half times more likely than white children to have a parent in prison. Like their parents, children often have multiple risks that may potentially impact their developmental outcome.

A. Custodial status. The child’s custodial status during a parent’s incarceration varies depending upon whether it is the father or the mother who is incarcerated. Most children with an incarcerated father are cared for by their biologic mother. When the mother is incarcerated, children typically are cared for by relatives, often a grandparent. Involvement with the child welfare system is more likely when the mother is incarcerated.

B. Socioeconomic consequences. Affected children often grow up in impoverished households and are impacted by additional incarceration-related financial strains. More than half of inmates report having provided primary financial support for their children prior to incarceration. Not only does the household lose this income when a parent is incarcerated but also relatives caring for the children may incur substantial cost in trying to maintain the parent-child relationship through visitation or phone contact. Recurring costs can include transportation to distant facilities, food and lodging, commissary deposits for prisoners, and collect phone calls. A history of incarceration may also be stigmatizing, making postrelease employment difficult.