Bilingualism
Naomi Steiner
I. Description and definition.
A. The importance of foreign language mastery is being increasingly recognized in the global economy.
B. Bilingualism is the mastery of two languages, and encompasses different levels of proficiency as follows:
1. Level 1: Ability to understand a second language (passive bilingualism). Children who are learning a second language often understand the language before they can speak it.
2. Level 2: Ability to speak a second language fluently.
3. Level 3: Ability to read and write in two languages (biliteracy).
Each level should be considered as a stepping stone to the next. So that a child who has level 1 passive understanding can quite rapidly with increased exposure attain level 2 and start speaking the language. For instance if a child speaks with her parents in English, but understands her parents and grandparents speaking Spanish together, she could rapidly start speaking in Spanish if placed in a Spanish-speaking only child care.
Parents should expect that a child will have a dominant language, which is the stronger and mostly used language, along with a weaker and less used language. Balanced bilingualism, which is high proficiency in two languages, is the exception rather than the rule. The dominant language can flip throughout childhood as quantity of exposure between the languages also shifts. This often happens at preschool or kindergarten entry when English starts to develop more rapidly and becomes the dominant language.
II. Epidemiology.
A. The National U.S. Census 2000 shows that 18% of people living in the United States speak a language other than English at home. After English, Spanish is the most frequently spoken language in the United States with 28 million speakers, followed by Chinese (2.0 million speakers), and then French (1.6 million speakers).
B. Worldwide there are more bilinguals than monolinguals. Bilingualism is the norm.
III. Learning theory.
A. What affects the proficiency level of language in bilingualism? In order of importance:
1. Priority placed by the family to raise a bilingual child, which may not be related to the parents’ own level of proficiency in the second language. As children grow older, it is important for parents to affirm their beliefs and to discuss this with their children.
2. Consistency and amount of exposure.
3. Child’s attitude towards language learning and speaking another language, which includes temperament and is also affected by family dynamics.
4. Ability towards learning foreign languages.
B. Second language development and the brain.
1. How children develop separate language systems in order to master expression in one language versus the other is a matter of debate. However, most scientists agree that language functions of both languages are more intertwined than previously thought.
As children learn language concepts in one language (such as the concept of plurals) the theory of transfer, explains that they then do not have to be re-learnt in the other; rather this knowledge can be transferred directly from one language to another.
The theory of suppression describes how a bilingual person is constantly suppressing one language in order to speak the other. Bilinguals are constantly flipping between two languages.
2. Bilingualism is considered a natural ability. Children do not need to have above average intelligence to become bilingual. All typically developing children can become bilingual. Babies are able to learn sounds from all languages, and can tell the difference between two languages within a few months of age. The brain is primed to learn more than one language.
3. Supporting second language development.
The earlier the better. It seems common sense that learning a second language takes years, so it is better to start early. However, from a neurological perspective, the younger brain is more plastic and better able to adapt to a new language environment and learn a second language. Scientists believe that the younger brain requires less language input to learn the second language. There is no critical period. False beliefs around second language learning relate that after a certain age it is impossible to learn another language. This misconception comes from the fact that after around puberty one should not expect to learn to speak a new language with a native-like accent. However, there is more to language learning than the accent, such as the vocabulary, expression, and understanding of the language. So, it is more exact to say that a child’s brain will adapt to her environment, and that there will be a gradual decline over the span of a lifetime. Adults too can learn a foreign language.
The greater the language input the faster the acquisition and the greater the language proficiency.
Contrary to the myth, children do not learn languages “like a sponge.” They require ongoing quality language input in both languages in order to become bilingual. The ultimate proficiency level will depend on the level of the language exposure. Children who receive poor language input in their heritage language and have difficulty learning English at school are at risk of developing poor language proficiency in both languages.
Consistency of language input should be the goal. This leads to increased input and to success. The One Parent One Language (OPOL) approach is when each parent chooses in which language they are going to speak to their children and stick to it. Parents can either both speak the same language to their children or speak in different languages, but they should always stick to that language. This method is highly successful towards raising a bilingual child, because it guarantees ongoing consistency and ongoing language input. Additional support comes when grandparents or other extended family members or caretakers also speak with the child a fixed language.
The brain is able to learn from different sources. For some parents the OPOL approach does not fit their family dynamic. These parents should know that the child’s brain can successfully learn languages even if they are exposed in a more scattered way, though the consistency will probably be decreased and therefore the level of proficiency also.
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