The occupational therapy process

10


The occupational therapy process


JEAN W. SOLOMON and JANE CLIFFORD O’BRIEN




This chapter describes the occupational therapy (OT) process by first presenting the role of the OT practitioner and then the pediatric practice models. The authors describe considerations during the provision of OT services. The OT process begins with referral, screening, and evaluation and moves to intervention planning, goal setting, and treatment implementation and then to re-evaluation and discharge planning. A discussion of specific frames of reference used in pediatric practice is also presented.





Models of practice


A model of practice (MOP) helps OT practitioners organize their thinking.13 For example, practitioners using the Model of Human Occupation (MOHO) know that they will gather information about volition (e.g., the child’s or parents’ goals and priorities or occupational choices), habituation or routines (e.g., how the child spends the day), performance (e.g., the physical skills and abilities of the child), and environment (e.g., the physical layout of the home). Practitioners using the Person–Environment–Occupational-Performance model will organize their thinking into information about the child (e.g., the child’s physical abilities), the environment (e.g., where the child attends school) and occupational performance (e.g., how the child is performing his or her daily occupations). Other commonly used pediatric MOPs include Occupational Adaptation and the Canadian Occupational Performance Model.


MOPs provide practitioners with a framework for thinking about and arranging their materials. They help practitioners focus on factors that influence functioning. MOPs are developed from OT theory and philosophy. As such, they fit with the Occupational Therapy Practice Framework (OTPF) in their emphasis on occupation. See Table 10-1 for an overview of selected MOPs.



TABLE 10-1


Models of Practice

























MODEL AUTHOR(S) COMPONENTS PREMISES
Model of Human Occupation (MOHO) Kielhofner Volition
Habituation
Performance
Environment
The human is an open system.
Volition drives the system.
The clinician’s role is to understand the client in terms of these systems (and subsystems) and intervene to facilitate engagement in occupations.
Canadian Occupational Performance Model Occupational Therapy Association Townsend, et al. Spirituality
Occupation
Context (institutional included)
The worth of the individual is central to this model.
Spirituality is the core of a person. Thus, occupational therapy practitioners must understand the client’s spirituality to facilitate engagement in occupations. Performance of occupations takes place within social, physical, and cultural environments.
Person–Environment– Occupation Model Law, et al. Person
Environment
Occupation
Looks at the person in terms of physical, social, and emotional factors.
The environment (context) influences the person and occupations.
The environment includes culture. Occupations are the everyday things people do.


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Data from Kielhofner G: A model of human occupation: Theory and application, ed 4, Baltimore, MD, 2008, Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; Law M, Cooper B, Stewart D, et al: The person-environment-occupation model: A transactive approach to occupational performance, Can J Occup Ther 63:9, 1996; Townsend E, Brintnell S, Staisey N: Developing guidelines for client-centered occupational therapy practice, Can J Occup Ther 57:69, 1990.



Referral, screening, and evaluation


The referral, screening, and evaluation aspects of the OT process are concomitantly referred to as the evaluation period. During this period, the OT practitioner meets the child, the family, or other referral sources (e.g., teacher, early interventionist) to collect information that will assist in setting goals and developing an activity configuration for the child.



Referral


Children are usually introduced to OT by means of a referral. The reason for a referral depends on the individual state licensure law or regulations within the area of practice. It is the responsibility of the OT practitioner to know the laws and regulations that govern his or her area of practice setting. Some states require a referral before an OT practitioner can see a client. Other states require a referral only for the intervention process. A physician or a nurse practitioner generally gives the referral, depending on the state’s laws; it is called physician’s referral or doctor’s orders.


According to the Standards of Practice for Occupational Therapy published by the American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA), only occupational therapists may accept a referral for assessment.1 The OTA, if given a referral, is responsible for forwarding it to a supervising occupational therapist and educating “current and potential referral sources about the scope of occupational therapy services and the process of initiating occupational therapy referrals.”1 OTAs may acknowledge requests for services from any source. However, they do not accept and begin working on cases at their own professional discretion without the supervision and collaboration of the occupational therapist.




Evaluation


The evaluation is a critical part of the OT process. The occupational therapist is responsible for determining the type and scope of evaluation. An evaluation includes assessments of an individual’s areas of performance (e.g., activities of daily living [ADLs], instrumental ADLs [IADLs], work, education, play/leisure, social participation), client factors (e.g., neuromusculoskeletal, specific and global mental functions, body system), performance skills, performance patterns, contexts, and activity demands.2 According to AOTA, an entry-level OTA “assists with data collection and evaluation under the supervision of the occupational therapist.”3 An intermediate- or advanced-level OTA “administers standardized tests under the supervision of an occupational therapist after service competency has been established.”3 Although the OTA may participate in the evaluation process, the occupational therapist is responsible for interpreting the results and developing the intervention plan.



Levels of performance

The evaluation provides the OT practitioner with a picture of the child’s occupational needs as well as the child’s strengths and weaknesses. This occupational profile consists of a description of the level of performance at which the child functions. A child’s level of function may differ in relation to task, pattern, and context (Box 10-1). For example, a child may feed himself or herself independently at home after setup but be unable to do so at school in the time provided while sitting at the table because of the loud noises and confusion of the lunch room.



Functional independence refers to the completion of age-appropriate activities with or without the use of assistive devices and without human assistance (e.g., eating independently with an offset spoon).


Assisted performance refers to a child’s participation in a specific age-appropriate task with some assistance from the caregiver (e.g., putting on a shirt and receiving assistance with buttoning).


Dependent performance occurs when a child is unable to perform an age-appropriate task. A caregiver is required to perform the task for the child (e.g., holding a cup for a child with cerebral palsy).



Intervention planning, goal setting, and treatment implementation


Intervention planning


The occupational therapist develops an intervention plan after the evaluation has been completed. The evaluation includes parental concerns, the client’s strengths and weaknesses, a statement of the client’s rehabilitation potential, long-term goals, and short-term objectives. The plan describes the type of media (i.e., specific types of materials) and modalities (i.e., intervention tools) that will be used and the frequency and duration of treatment. The plans for re-evaluation and discharge as well as the level of personnel providing the intervention are also included.1


The intervention plan is based on a selected MOP or a frame of reference (FOR). The FOR provides guidelines and intervention strategies. The OTA utilizes knowledge of the selected frames of reference, the activity analysis, and the selection, gradation, and adaptation of activities to carry out the intervention plan.



Frames of reference

Once practitioners have gained information by using an MOP, they must decide how to intervene. FORs are used to direct OT intervention. They inform practitioners on what to do and are based on theory, research, and clinical experience.13 FORs define the populations for which they are suitable, describe the continuum of function and dysfunction, provide assessment tools, describe treatment modalities and intervention techniques, define the role of the practitioner, and suggest outcome measures. FOR helps the OT practitioner identify problems and develop solutions. Common pediatric FORs in OT are MOHO, developmental, sensory integration, biomechanical, sensorimotor, motor control, and rehabilitation FORs. See Table 10-2 for an overview of FORs. MOHO is both a MOP and a FOR, since this model has numerous assessment tools and intervention strategies. As such, it provides an overall way of thinking and also meets the criteria for a FOR. See Chapter 25 for a description of MOHO.



TABLE 10-2


Pediatric Frames of Reference





















































FRAME OF REFERENCE REFERENCE(S) PRINCIPLES SAMPLE POPULATIONS TREATMENT MODALITIES
Developmental Llorens Development occurs over time and between skills (e.g., gross and fine motor).
Some children experience a gap in their development due to physical, emotional, and/or social trauma. The role of occupational therapy is to bridge this gap.
Down syndrome
Intellectual disability
Failure to thrive
Cerebral palsy
Pervasive developmental disorder
Identify current level of functioning.
Work on the next step to achieve the skill. Intervention includes practice, repetition, education, and modeling of skills.
Biomechanical Pedretti and Paszuinielli Improve strength, endurance, range of motion. Children with cardiac concerns
Brachial plexus
Cerebral palsy
Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis
Down syndrome
Strength: Increase weight of toys or repetitive use of objects.
Endurance: Increase time engaged in occupation.
Range of motion: Repetitively provide slow, sustained stretch to increase end range.
Sensory integration Ayres Children with sensory integration dysfunction have difficulty processing sensory information (vestibular, proprioceptive, tactile).
Improvements in sensory processing lead to improved engagement in occupations.
Sensory integrative dysfunction
Developmental coordination disorder
Sensory modulation disorder
Pervasive developmental disorder
Provide controlled sensory input to improve the child’s ability to process sensory stimuli.
Use suspension equipment and the “just-right challenge.”
Provide activities that are child directed.
Motor control Shumway-Cook Acquisition of motor skills is based on dynamic systems theory. (All systems, including sensory, motor, and cognitive, work on each other for movement to occur.) Cerebral palsy
Developmental coordination disorder
Down syndrome
Task-oriented approach: Children learn motor skills best by repeating the occupations in the most natural settings, varying the requirements.
They learn from their motor mistakes.
Neuro- developmental Bobath, Schoen, and Anderson Children learn motor patterns when they “feel” normal. Cerebral palsy
Traumatic brain injury movement patterns
Clinician uses handling techniques and key points of control to inhibit abnormal muscle tone and facilitate normal movement patterns.
Children learn through “feeling” normal patterns and thus should not make motor mistakes.
Model of Human Occupation Kielhofner Volition
Habituation
Performance
Environment
All diagnoses The human is an open system.
Volition drives the system.
The clinician’s role is to understand the client in terms of these systems (and subsystems) and intervene to facilitate engagement in occupations.
Rehabilitation Early, Pendleton & Schultz-Krohn Children relearn skills lost; develop compensatory strategies; and develop adaptive techniques. Acquired brain injury trauma
Stroke
Help children regain function for independence in occupations
Help children to practice; improve strength, ROM, and endurance.


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Data from Ayres AJ: Sensory integration for the child, Los Angeles, 1979, Western Psychological Services; Bobath B: Sensorimotor development, NDT Newsletter 7:1, 1975; Early MB: Physical dysfunction practice skills for the occupational therapy assistant, ed 2, St. Louis, 2006, Mosby; Llorens LA: Application of a developmental theory for health and rehabilitation, Rockville, MD, 1976, American Occupational Therapy Association; Shultz-Krohn W, Pendleton H: Application of the occupational therapy framework to physical dysfunction. In Pendleton, H. & Shultz-Krohn, editors: Pedretti’s occupational therapy: Practice skills for physical dysfunction, ed 6, St Louis, 2006, Mosby; Schoen S, Anderson J: Neurodevelopmental treatment frame of reference. In Kramer P, Hinojosa J, editors: Frames of reference for pediatric occupational therapy, Baltimore, MD, 2009, Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; Shumway-Cook A, Woolacott M: Motor control: Issues and theories. In Shumway-Cook A, Woolacott M, editors: Motor control: Theory an practical applications, ed 2, Baltimore, MD, 2002, Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.


Practitioners may choose a variety of FORs. However, they should be careful to choose an appropriate one and be clear about the theories and methodologies used with the given FOR. In cases when intervention does not progress as planned, practitioners adhering to one FOR may explore other suggested intervention techniques or change to another FOR. Intervention techniques are based on evidence from research. Given the need for evidence-based intervention, clinicians adhering to an FOR are using techniques investigated through research. Therefore, practitioners must keep themselves informed by reading and critically analyzing current research literature.


The following sections provide an overview and examples of specific FORs used with children.



Developmental approach


CASE Study


Corey is a 2-year-old boy diagnosed with global developmental delays. Corey attends an early intervention center twice weekly for 2 hours of “group” time and 1 hour weekly for direct OT services. Roanna, the OTA, works with Corey and provides activities that can be continued at home with the family. The OT evaluation, which was based on the Hawaii Early Learning Profile (HELP), had revealed that Corey functions at a level between 16 and 20 months for most skills, with gross motor skills being his strength and fine motor and language skills his weak areas. Cognitively, Corey recognizes and points to four animal pictures (16–21 months), identifies himself in a mirror (15–16), identifies one body part (15–19), and searches for a hidden object (17–18). Expressive language skills include saying no meaningfully (13–15), naming one or two familiar objects (13–18), and using 10 to 15 words spontaneously (15–17). Gross motor skills are solid to 20 months: Corey picks up a toy from the floor without falling (19–24), runs fairly well (18–24), and squats when playing (20–21). He does not walk upstairs independently (22–24) or jump in place (22–30). Fine motor skills are scattered to 18 months. Corey builds a tower with two cubes (12–16) and scribbles spontaneously (13–18). He uses both hands at midline (16–18) but has difficulty pointing with his index finger (12–16) and placing one round peg in a pegboard (12–15). Social-emotional skills include enjoying rough-and-tumble play (18–24), expressing affection (18–24), and showing toy preferences (12–18). Corey has developed self-help skills to 12 months. He holds a spoon and finger-feeds himself (9–12), naps once or twice each day (9–12), cooperates with dressing (10–12), and removes a hat (15–16).


The OTA designed an intervention plan based on this developmental picture of Corey and the parents’ concern that Corey is not “playing like his 30-month-old cousin.” The overall goal of the intervention based on the developmental FOR is to facilitate the child’s ability to perform age-appropriate tasks in the areas of self-care, play/leisure, education, and social participation. The developmental FOR targets intervention at the level at which the child is currently functioning and requires that the clinician provide a slightly advanced challenge. Clinicians using the developmental FOR need a clear understanding of the logical progression of skills. A typical therapy session is illustrated by the following SOAP (subjective, objective, assessment, and plan) note.









Sensory integration approach


CASE Study


Jamar is a 13-year-old boy with sensory integration dysfunction. His movements are awkward, and he has poor balance and coordination; associated reactions with effort are noted (such as both hands moving when he writes). Jamar shows poor eye–hand coordination, poor rhythmic skills, and poor body awareness. He also shows signs of poor tactile, vestibular, and proprioceptive processing. The occupational therapist classified Jamar’s dysfunction as poor motor planning and body awareness due to inadequate processing of vestibular input (vestibular-based somatodyspraxia).


Jamar is an intelligent child who has expressed the desire to “be smoother, learn to dance, and not be the last one in every sport in gym.” He also reports handwriting difficulties leading to lower grades in school.


Jamar receives OT services from Jackie, an OTA with 10 years of experience in a community-based sports injury clinic. The following SOAP note describes an intervention session. The goal of Jamar’s intervention sessions is to improve body awareness, vestibular processing, and overall quality of movement so that he will be more confident in his body. Sensory integration theory postulates that by improving the ability to process sensory information, the body’s ability to plan and execute movements will improve. Ayres emphasized movement-related activities with the use of suspended equipment (to get the intensity needed) and the “just-right challenge.”9





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Jamar reluctantly participated in a fast-moving tire-swing activity. He quickly became dizzy with the spinning and enjoyed bouncing into objects. Jamar had difficulty getting on new pieces of equipment. He “talked” his way through a difficult five-step obstacle course. Jamar showed difficulty clapping to the rhythm (five beats before an error) while on the trampoline but was able to clap to the rhythm (20 beats without an error) when sitting on the platform swing. On hearing a noise, he jumped into hoops placed randomly on the floor, showing some difficulty in sequencing and planning. Jamar was able to sequence and plan a difficult three-step obstacle course that involved crawling, swinging, and throwing a ball at a target. He completed 10 minutes of the Mavis typing program with a 70% success rate and was able to imitate simple dance moves (from song 1 of the Twister Moves game). Jamar was not able to successfully complete the dance moves and could not stay with the music after song 1.




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Jamar will continue with sensory integration therapy twice weekly (1 hour sessions) for 3 months to improve his processing of vestibular, proprioceptive, and tactile information for quality of movements and educational and leisure activities. Jamar was provided with a homework assignment to select one song from Twister Moves and complete the dance steps from the game. Jamar will complete a Mavis typing program at the eighth-grade level and use a laptop computer for writing assignments. He will discuss these activities with his parents and teacher.


Jackie, the OTA, used a sensory integration frame of reference to improve the motor planning, sequencing, and timing of movements. Jamar chose the activities, and the session was tailored to address his concern about looking “awkward or weird” (i.e., not dancing to the beat of the music) at the school dance. Using goals that children pick themselves empowers and gratifies them. Furthermore, the child will work very hard to achieve these goals, making the likelihood of success greater. In this example, Jackie used suspended equipment to provide the intensity of input needed for a 13-year-old. She also challenged Jamar to participate in a slightly uncomfortable activity. Children gain confidence when they succeed in activities they deem to be slightly “tougher.” In this way, Jackie worked on Jamar’s self-concept as well. Recommending the use of a laptop is not necessarily a sensory integration technique. However, Jamar is 13 years old and needs to be able to communicate in writing for success in school. Therefore, Jackie decided that it was time to move away from teaching writing skills and help Jamar perform his educational occupation.

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Jul 24, 2016 | Posted by in PEDIATRICS | Comments Off on The occupational therapy process

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