• • Vomiting.

  • Hematemesis.

  • Melena.

  • Chronic diarrhea.

  • Failure to thrive.

  • Abdominal pain.

  • Dysphagia, odynophagia.

  • Foreign body.

  • Caustic ingestion.

  • Histopathologic, biochemical, and microbial evaluations of pinhead-sized biopsy specimens and sampled fluids (eg, pancreatic).

Absolute

• • Cardiorespiratory collapse.

  • Unstable airway.

  • Intestinal perforation.

  • Peritonitis.

  • Cervical spine trauma.

Relative

• • Coagulopathy (prothrombin time > 18 sec).

  • Thrombocytopenia (platelet count < 100,000/μL).

  • Intestinal tract surgery within previous 1 month.

  • Food intake within previous 6 hours.

  • Bowel obstruction.

• • Fiberoptic or video endoscopes.

  • Biopsy forceps.

  • Snares.

  • Nets and baskets.

  • Sclerotherapy needles.

  • Banding devices.

  • Heater probes.

  • Electrocautery probes.

  • Balloon-dilation devices.

  • Guidewires and wire-guided bougie dilators.

• • Anesthesia complications.

  • Bleeding.

  • Perforation.

• • Biopsies are required because characteristics of many disorders may only be detectable under the microscope.

  • Retroflection with a good view of the cardia may demonstrate source of bleeding or prolapse gastropathy.