• • Chronic diarrhea.

  • Lower gastrointestinal bleeding.

  • Abdominal pain.

  • Evaluation of radiographic abnormalities.

  • • Ulcerations.

    • Filling defects.

    • Strictures.

  • Initial diagnosis and follow-up evaluation of inflammatory bowel disease.

  • Removal of foreign bodies.

  • Dilatation of colonic strictures.

  • Diagnosis and removal of polyps.

  • Histopathologic evaluation of pinhead-sized biopsy specimens.

Absolute

• • Cardiorespiratory collapse.

  • Hemodynamically unstable patient.

  • Unstable airway.

  • Intestinal perforation.

  • Peritonitis.

  • Cervical spine trauma.

  • Toxic, fulminant colitis.

Relative

• • Coagulopathy (prothrombin time > 18 sec).

  • Thrombocytopenia (platelet count < 100,000/μL).

  • Intestinal tract surgery within previous month.

  • Food intake within previous 6 hours.

  • Bowel obstruction.

• • Fiberoptic or video endoscopes.

  • Biopsy forceps.

  • Snares.

  • Nets and baskets.

  • Heater probes.

  • Electrocautery probes and snares.

  • Balloon-dilation devices.

• • Anesthesia complications.

  • Bleeding.

  • Perforation.

• • Biopsies are required because characteristics of many disorders may only be detectable under the microscope.