Dysfunctional parent–child relationships, particularly involving infants and toddlers, that have not responded to routine parenting strategies: Parent training is particularly important in an era when child abuse and sexual misuse occur far too frequently; these are preventable problems.

Physiologic, psychological, and behavioral complications of medical illness: These include psychological adjustment to the illness; behavior problems following the illness, including noncompliance with treatment; and physiologic complications of disease such as delirium. Warning signs for adjustment difficulties might be frequent office or emergency department visits, vague complaints that are difficult to ascribe to a physical condition, and continued difficulty adapting to a chronic disease.

Persistent changes in behavior after stressful experiences: An adjustment disorder or posttraumatic stress disorder may occur after severe stress, such as an accident or loss of a significant family member. Changes in behavior also may accompany marital discord, family violence, psychiatric disorder in a parent, and drug or alcohol abuse by a family member.