FIGURE 14-1. Management of thyroid disease during pregnancy.
REFERENCES
1. American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology. ACOG practice bulletin. Thyroid disease in pregnancy. Number 37, August 2002. American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2002;79:171-180.
2. Chiamolera MI, Wondisford FE. Minireview: thyrotropin-releasing hormone and the thyroid hormone feedback mechanism. Endocrinology. 2009;150:1091-1096.
3. Davies AG. Thyroid physiology. Br Med J. 1972;2:206-209.
4. Stathatos N. Thyroid physiology. Med Clin North Am. 2012;96:165-173.
5. Glinoer D. What happens to the normal thyroid during pregnancy? Thyroid. 1999;9:631-635.
6. Stricker R, Echenard M, Eberhart R, et al. Evaluation of maternal thyroid function during pregnancy: the importance of using gestational age-specific reference intervals. Eur J Endocrinol. 2007;157:509-514.
7. Dashe JS, Casey BM, Wells CE, et al. Thyroid-stimulating hormone in singleton and twin pregnancy: importance of gestational age-specific reference ranges. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;106:753-757.
8. De Groot L, Abalovich M, Alexander EK, et al. Management of thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy and postpartum: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97:2543-2565.
9. Ain KB, Mori Y, Refetoff S. Reduced clearance rate of thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG) with increased sialylation: a mechanism for estrogen-induced elevation of serum TBG concentration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1987;65:689-696.
10. Ain KB, Refetoff S, Sarne DH, Murata Y. Effect of estrogen on the synthesis and secretion of thyroxine-binding globulin by a human hepatoma cell line, Hep G2. Mol Endocrinol. 1988;2:313-323.
11. Mandel SJ, Spencer CA, Hollowell JG. Are detection and treatment of thyroid insufficiency in pregnancy feasible? Thyroid. 2005;15:44-53.
12. Fagman H, Nilsson M. Morphogenesis of the thyroid gland. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2010;323:35-54.
13. Burrow GN, Fisher DA, Larsen PR. Maternal and fetal thyroid function. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1072-1078.
14. Vulsma T, Gons MH, de Vijlder JJ. Maternal-fetal transfer of thyroxine in congenital hypothyroidism due to a total organification defect or thyroid agenesis. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:13-16.
15. Kakuno Y, Amino N, Kanoh M, et al. Menstrual disturbances in various thyroid diseases. Endocr J. 2010;57:1017-1022.
16. Krassas GE, Pontikides N, Kaltsas T, et al. Disturbances of menstruation in hypothyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1999;50:655-659.
17. Krassas GE. Thyroid disease and female reproduction. Fertil Steril. 2000;74:1063-1070.
18. Hallengren B, Lantz M, Andreasson B, Grennert L. Pregnant women on thyroxine substitution are often dysregulated in early pregnancy. Thyroid. 2009;19:391-394.
19. Abalovich M, Gutierrez S, Alcaraz G, Maccallini G, Garcia A, Levalle O. Overt and subclinical hypothyroidism complicating pregnancy. Thyroid. 2002;12:63-68.