Selected organizations

Numerous national and international organizations are concerned with the interactions between animals and humans and animal-assisted services. The International Association of Human–Animal Interaction Organizations (IAHAIO), the Delta Society, and Assistance Dogs International (ADI) will be discussed (see Resources at the end of this chapter for a list of organizations).

The IAHAIO was founded in 1990 to provide a forum for national and international associations or related organizations interested in understanding and appreciating human–animal interactions. The primary purpose of the organization is to coordinate its structure nationally and internationally. Its mission is to promote research, education, and the sharing of information regarding the role of animals in human health and quality of life. The activities of the IAHAIO include sponsoring workshops, publishing information that adds to the body of knowledge on human–animal interactions, and influencing public policies that promote the integration of animals into human society.⁶

The Delta Society promotes human health and well-being through positive interactions with animals. It publishes guidelines for developing animal-assisted therapy programs, professional standards for dog trainers, and information regarding service dogs. It offers workshops and home study courses for registering clinicians who use animals during therapy. According to the Delta Society, approximately 2000 animal-assisted therapy programs are available in the United States. Dogs are the animals most often used during physical rehabilitation intervention.⁶

ADI is a coalition of nonprofit organizations dedicated to training, placing, and using assistance dogs. The organization publishes a newsletter to educate the public on the benefits of assistance dogs.

Animal-assisted activities

Animal-assisted activities are those activities that involve human and animal interactions. Examples of animal-assisted activities include the use of assistance dogs, taking cats to visit residents in a nursing home, keeping fish in a kindergarten classroom, and participation in a therapeutic horseback riding class (Figure 28-1). These activities offer opportunities for children and adolescents to care for as well as to interact with animals while grooming, feeding, and petting them. For example, during therapeutic horseback riding, the child or adolescent learns not only to ride the horse but also to take care of it.

Animal-assisted therapy

Animal-assisted therapy uses animals to improve the medical, developmental, physical, and mental conditions of children or adolescents. Hippotherapy, or therapy using horses, is one of the most popular types of animal-assisted therapy. Dogs are also frequently involved in animal-assisted therapy (Figure 28-2).⁶ Animal-assisted therapy is carried out by a qualified OT practitioner. This type of therapy includes the evaluation of the child’s body functions and structure, the design and implementation of an intervention plan, documentation of goals and progress, as well as re-evaluation and planning for the discontinuation of services.³ In both animal-assisted activities and animal-assisted therapy, the welfare and safety of people and animals are top priorities. The following example illustrates animal-assisted therapy.

CASE Study

Henry is a 6-year-old child who has spastic–quadriplegic cerebral palsy. He attends hippotherapy sessions on a weekly basis during the spring and fall seasons. Carl, the OT practitioner, has set the following goals or anticipated outcomes for this intervention (Figure 28-3).

Long-term goals

• Henry will demonstrate functional trunk control while sitting during leisure time.

• Henry will reach for objects while sitting to perform occupations of activities of daily living (ADLs).

Short-term goals

• Henry will maintain the upright position while sitting on the horse for 2 minutes.

• Henry will maintain his sitting balance as the horse walks one fourth of the distance of the riding arena.

• Henry will touch the horse’s ears with each hand, alternating individually and simultaneously (unilaterally and bilaterally), in three out of four sequence trials.

During Henry’s hippotherapy session, Carl engages him in stretching activities while Henry is seated bareback and backward on the horse. Carl assists Henry to reach for the horse’s ears and hindquarters. While Carl is assisting Henry with his arms, Becki, a physical therapy assistant, stabilizes Henry’s trunk and legs. After the stretching activities, two volunteers join the team to serve as helpers as the horse begins to move under the direction of the trainer/instructor. Carl facilitates upper trunk and arm control, and Becki facilitates pelvic mobility with leg stability. In each of the four corners of the riding arena, the following therapeutic activities are located: (1) a pressure switch that activates a tape playing Henry’s favorite music, (2) a beanbag toss, (3) a punching bag to encourage arm and leg movement, and (4) a ring tree game. Carl, Becki, and Henry work together at each of the stations as the volunteers manage the horse and offer extra help as needed.

In the above scenario, the emphasis of the animal-assisted session is to improve Henry’s postural control (i.e., sitting posture) for ADLs and leisure activities. These therapeutic goals are addressed during the riding session. This differs from therapeutic riding, in which program the goal of the session is to help the child engage in horseback riding. The following example provides readers with an example of goals that emphasize riding as the outcome (versus motor performance as the outcome).

CASE Study

Galen lives on a farm, where his family regularly ride horses (Figure 28-4). He is a 7-year-old child with spastic–quadriplegic cerebral palsy. The OT practitioner has recommended a therapeutic riding program and has set the following goals and objectives for intervention.

Long-term goals

• Given adaptive equipment for safety, Galen will ride a horse for 20 minutes on trails.

• Galen will be able to mount his horse with moderate physical assistance.

Short-term goals

• Galen will maintain the upright position while sitting on the horse for 5 minutes.

• Galen will maintain the upright position while sitting on the horse as the horse walks one fourth of the distance of the riding arena.

In this scenario, the OT intervention is similar to Henry’s; however, the goals of Galen’s and Henry’s sessions differ. The goal of Galen’s sessions is for him to be a competent rider so that he can participate in the occupations of his family. The goal of Henry’s sessions is for him to gain skills that may be used in other occupations (e.g., improved sitting balance, improved reaching). Therapeutic riding often becomes a leisure activity for children, thus allowing the intervention to become occupation based.

Small animals

Small animals are those that typically weigh less than 40 pounds. Dogs, which are mammals, are one type of small animal. Other types include reptiles such as snakes; amphibians such as frogs; fish; and invertebrates such as hermit crabs and worms (Table 28-1). This chapter discusses the different types of small animals, with special attention devoted to dogs.

Mammals are animals that have a backbone and are characterized by hair on the skin and mammary glands that produce milk in females. They are warm-blooded animals that maintain a relatively warm body temperature independent of the environmental temperature. Examples of animals that are classified as mammals are dogs, cats, rabbits, and guinea pigs.

Dogs are one of the most popular pets and the most frequently used small mammal for animal-assisted services (Figure 28-5). They offer a large variety of choices. Dogs are small, medium, or large in size and may be purebred or a mix of breeds. Examples of small purebred dogs are dachshunds, Chihuahuas, and cocker spaniels. Large dog breeds include chows, German shepherds, Saint Bernards, Great Pyrennes, and standard poodles. Mixed breeds (also known as “mutts”) can be small, medium, or large in size.

The characteristics of the breed and the individual personality of the dog are both considered when selecting a dog for animal-assisted services or to be a pet. One aspect of a dog’s personality is temperament, which refers to the dog’s natural or instinctive behavior. When stressed, a dog will respond according to its temperament, and frequently this is characteristic of its breed. For example, chows are known to show an aggressive response under stress.

Training involves teaching a dog to follow commands while being controlled or led by a person. Although a dog can be trained to be obedient, the temperaments of certain breeds may override their training during stressful situations. For example, in crowds of people with a lot of noise and movement, chows tend to growl and become “snappy.”

A service dog is one that assists people who have physical or sensory disabilities.¹ Service dogs are legally defined in the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). According to ADA, the three types of service dogs are (1) guide dogs, (2) hearing dogs, and (3) medical alert dogs (Box 28-2). A guide dog is one that assists a person who has a visual impairment or is blind. A hearing dog is one that assists a person who has a hearing loss or is deaf. A medical alert dog is one that assists a person in a medical emergency by detecting specific physiologic changes and locating assistance during medical emergencies.¹

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